GAVIIDAE (1 species)

This family, which is restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, contains 5 species which generally occur in temperate regions, and, although strongly migratory, remain close to the coastline. Eggs May-Jul.

Gavia pacifica Pacific Loon
Cas Nov-Mar Guadalupe I. Acc Hawaiian Is (Oahu; Pyle 2002).


HYDROBATIDAE (13 species)

Recent evidence has demonstrated that the storm-petrels are polyphyletic, separating into northern and southern hemisphere clades (see discusssion in Christidis and Boles 2008). This is followed here, with Hydrobatidae used for northern storm-petrels and Oceanitidae for southern storm-petrels. Recent genetic studies (for example Penhallurick and Wink 2004, see Christidis and Boles 2008) place these families as sister clades to Diomedeidae.
The southern forms of storm-petrel are generally considered to consist of 5 genera, Oceanites, Garrodia, Pelagodroma, Fregetta, Nesofregetta, and possibly newly rediscovered Pealeornis, and Penhallurick and Wink (2004) demonstrated that northern forms are paraphyletic also, falling into four groups that are as genetically distinct as the four southern groups. Because the generic positions of some species in the classification of Pennhallurick and Wink (2004) remain unclear, Christidis and Boles (2008) included Oceanodroma (=Cymochorea herein) and Halocyptena in Hydrobates. The generic names for these groups are shown below in the respective species accounts.

Hydrobates furcatus Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel
Penhallurick and Wink (2004) showed with cytochrome b studies that Oceanodroma is paraphyletic at the generic level, consisting of the 4 groups shown below, Hydrobates, Cymochorea, Halocyptena, and Thalobata.
This taxon (Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel) groups with Hydrobates according to cytochrome b studies by Penhallurick and Wink (2004); as Oceanodroma is junior to Hydrobates, the generic name for this group becomes the latter.
H. f. furcatus At sea nw Pacific, incl Iwo Is, Marcus I (=Minamitorishima) (Brazil 1991).
H. f. plumbeus At sea ne Pacific s Sep-May to 35N. Acc Hawaiian Is (Scott et al 2001, Pyle 2002).
Cymochorea leucorhoa Leach's Storm-Petrel
Cymochorea is the earliest available name for this group (Penhallurick and Wink 2004). Huntington et al (1996) placed beali with leucorhoa and willetti with chapmani, as suggested by Power and Ainley (1986) and followed here.
C. l. leucorhoa including beali
At sea n. Pacific s to 12S mostly in c. Pacific 170W-175E, south to 27.3S eastern Pacific (Spear and Ainley 2007); largest numbers Oct-Mar, but significant numbers (immatures?) May-Aug (King 1974, Huntington et al 1996, Spear and Ainley 2007); incl Mariana Is (Reichel and Glass 1991), Marshall Is (3 specs, Huber 1971; Pyle and Engbring 1985), Kiribati (Phoenix Is, Line Is, Pratt 1987), Hawaiian Is, Marquesas Is (this subsp?) and Galapagos Is (large concentrations west of Galapagos Is, esp Nov-Mar, appear to be birds often referred to as beali, King 1974). Cas NZ (NI Apr, Aug, Oct-Dec, Taylor 2004, incl Chatham Is where 2 prospecting Rabbit I Nov-Dec, Imber and Lovegrove 1982), Cocos I (this subsp? Montoya 2003).
F: 55 in Hawaiian Is EEZ Aug-Nov (M. Force).
C. l. chapmani including willetti.
At sea Oct-Apr e. Pacific as for leucorhoa (Huntington et al 1996), but possibly closer to coast than leucorhoa/beali (King 1974).
C. l. socorroensis Breeds Guadalupe I. Eggs May-Jun. At sea Oct-Apr e. Pacific as for leucorhoa (Huntington et al 1996); King (1974) gave range between 10N and 35N, with few sightings >250 miles from the coast.
C. l. cheimomnestes including kaedingi.
Breeds Guadalupe I (most of this population have white rumps- Howell and Webb 1995). Eggs Oct-Nov. At sea Oct-Apr e. Pacific as for leucorhoa (Huntington et al 1996), but generally foraging further from breeding site than dark-rumped socorroensis, however (see discussion in Ainley 1980). Dark-rumped birds collected at 0 and 140W in Jun and at 9N and 140W in Apr some 5000km from the mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007) may have been this taxon.
C. macrodactyla Guadalupe Storm-Petrel
Extinct. Bred formerly Guadalupe I.
C. monorhis Swinhoe's Storm-Petrel
Considered by some authors conspecific with C. leucorhoa Leach's Storm-Petrel.
At sea nw Pacific breeding season, migrates Sep-Apr to ne Indian Ocean. Reg vis Hawaiian Is.
C. tristrami Tristram's Storm-Petrel
Breeds s Izu Is, Iwo Is, ?Ogasawara Is (Harrison 1990; extinct Torishima, Penhallurick 2003), ?Mariana Is (Pyle and Engbring 1985; Reichel and Glass 1991 consider occ hypo only), Hawaiian Is (10,000 inds nw islands e to Nihoa). Eggs Jan. At sea in vicinity in cw Pacific.
F: Hawaiian Is (seen Feb near Necker I, Lonsdale); 3 in Hawaiian Is EEZ Aug-Nov, M. Force).
C. markhami Markham's Storm-Petrel
At sea e Pacific between 17N and 30S and west to 118W on the equator (Spear and Ainley 2007, King 1974); westernmost birds >500 km offshore mostly sub-ads (Spear and Ainley 2007). Cas Clipperton I, Cocos I, Galapagos Is.
F: 40 in e Pacific between Costa Rica and Peru Oct (Shirihai).
Halocyptena microsoma Least Storm-Petrel
The earliest available name for this group is Halocyptena (Penhallurick and Wink 2004).
At sea off California (Aug-Oct, McGrath and Feenstra 2005) and Mexico, s to Ecuador; 35N to 9S (Spear and Ainley 2007). Cas up to 600 miles offshore (King 1974), incl Revillagigedo Is, although all within 327 km of mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007).
H. tethys Wedge-rumped (Galapagos) Storm-Petrel
H. t. tethys Breeds 400,000 inds Galapagos Is (Genovesa, Pitt, Harris 1969), but total population est up to 1,136,900 in austral spring (Spear and Ainley 2007). Eggs mostly May-Jun. At sea n to Panama, cas to 29 N off Mexico (Guadalupe I, Revillagigedo Is, Jehl and Parkes 1982), Cocos I (Montoya 2003), s to 20S; most were recorded 20n to 20s and >250 km from mainland Americas west to 176W (Spear and Ainley 2007), incl Palmyra area (Aug, Force and Webb).
F: A few near Floreana Jun (Ottesen); 37 at sea Jun-Jul (Chartier).
H. t. kelsalli At sea 32N to 30S and within 500 km of mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007). Acc Jan California (Roberson 1980; McGrath and Feenstra 2005). Cas (this subsp?) southern California Aug-Oct (McGrath and Feenstra 2005).
H. matsudairae Matsudaira's Storm-Petrel
Breeds Iwo Is (Kitaiwojima, Minamiiwojima). Eggs Jan-Feb. At sea vicinity during breeding season Jan-Jun. At sea s of breeding location between 30N and New Guinea, possibly ne of New Guinea. Unc migrant Palau. Vis Mariana Is (most Apr-Jul, Wiles et al 2000, Kessler 1999, Reichel and Glass 1991). Acc Solomon Is (ca 300 km ne Buka July, 22 mi ne Nuguria, Hadden 2004a). Hypo Caroline Is (Jul between Kosrae and Pohnpei, Pyle and Engbring 1985).
F: Ogasawara Is (19 on ferry 5-6 Jun between Chichijima and Hahajima, Danzenbaker).
H. melania Black Storm-Petrel
At sea e Pacific California (late Apr-Oct, McGrath and Feenstra 2005) to Peru (38N-13S, Spear and Ainley 2007). Sightings up to ca. 900 miles offshore at 8N/120W (King 1974), but all recorded were within 360 km of mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007). Cas Revillagigedo Is, Cocos I (Montoya 2003), Galapagos Is.
H. homochroa Ashy Storm-Petrel
Total pop 6500 inds (McGrath and Feenstra 2005). At sea n California to Mexico, 38.5-32 N and within 260 km of mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007). Whether this species occurs >200 mi from mainland is doubtful; limits of 7-47N and up to 480 miles offshore (King 1974) considered mis-identifications of dark-rumped Leach's Storm-petrels (Spear and Ainley 2007).
H. hornbyi Ringed (Hornby's) Storm-Petrel
At sea Jul-Nov off s Peru and n Chile between 25S and 35S, further n Aug-Dec, to Equator (overall 3S-32S, Spear and Ainley 2007). Few >200 miles offshore (King 1974); furthest offshore 481 km (Spear and Ainley 2007). Acc Aug off California.
Thalobata castro Band-rumped (Madeiran, Harcourt's) Storm-Petrel
Thalobata is the only available name for this group (Penhallurick and Wink 2004), traditionally considered monotypic, but several recent studies indicate that more than one species is involved: according to Smith et al (2007), "Despite previous classification as a single, monotypic species, fixed haplotype differences occurred between Atlantic and Pacific populations, and among all Pacific populations. In addition, Cape Verde and Galapagos birds formed distinct clades, estimated to have diverged from all other populations at least 150,000 years ago."
T. c. cryptoleucura Breeds Hawaiian Is (Kauai, Maui, Hawaii, but nesting sites unknown). At sea vicinity, possibly south in fall to about 10S and east to 160W (Spear and Ainley 2007), incl Marshall Is (spec Apr-May, Huber 1971).
T. c. bangsi Breeds Galapagos Is 15,000 prs, but estimates up to 475,700 in austral fall (Spear and Ainley 2007). Two differently-timed nesting populations with apparently no genetic interchange (Spear and Ainley 2007). Eggs Feb-Mar and Oct-Nov. At sea vicinity, apparently foraging within 1000 km of breeding sites; limits were 25N and 27S and west to about 115W (Spear and Ainley 2007), including Revillagigedo Is and Cocos I (Penhallurick 2003).
Reports of this species at sea near New Caledonia (between Grande Terre and Lifou Oct 1998, Barre and Dutson 2000) and Solomon Is (Mar Bougainville, Hadden 2004a) may have been more likely Leach's Storm-Petrels C. l. leucorhoa.
F: good numbers Hawaiian Is (5 km n of Na Pali coast, Harrison 1990); 17 usually far offshore Hawaiian Is Jun-Jul (Chartier); 8 in Hawaiian Is EEZ Aug-Nov (M. Force).


OCEANITIDAE (8 species)

Oceanites oceanicus Wilson's Storm-Petrel
O. o. exasperatus At sea breeding season Nov-Mar n to 50S; May-Nov n to 30N in n Pacific incl Japan, e to Washington; movement Mar-May and Nov-Dec, mostly in c and w Pacific, unc NZ. Apparently does not occur east of 119W in east-central Pacific, leaving a gap of 3000 km between this subspecies and chilensis (Spear and Ainley 2007). Concentration Oct-Nov on equator at 170W-180 (King 1974, Spear and Ainley 2007). Cas Apr-May Marshall Is (Huber 1971), Hawaiian Is (2 birds Sep n of Laysan I and Lisianski and 4 in Sep n Kauai, Mike Force; 3 late Sep Palmyra area, Force and Webb), Mar Lord Howe I (McAllan et al 2004), Vanuatu, New Caledonia (rare Mar-May, Barre and Dutson 2000), Solomon Is (Apr, Jul, Aug, Nov, Dutson 2001; Penhallurick 2003; Hadden 2004a; 19 in Solomon Sea Aug, M. Carter), May Fiji, Mar Tonga prob this sp (Watling 2001).
F: Mar-May NZ (off eastern NI), Nov-Dec Chatham Rise 44S176.30E, 42.30S180W (Petyt 2001b).
O. o. chilensis This taxon was described by Murphy for smaller birds breeding near Cape Horn; often included in O. o. oceanicus by current authors.
At sea north in Humboldt Current to Ecuador (Murphy 1936); northernmost at 3.10S (Spear and Ainley 2007), and within 509 km of mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007) but reported for Juan Fernandez Is (AOU 1957). Concentration Aug off nw S. America 0-20S/75-85W (King 1974) apparently refers to chilensis (Spear and Ainley 2007).
O. gracilis White-vented (Elliot's) Storm-Petrel
O. g. galapagoensis Breeds ("many thousands") Galapagos Is. Eggs? At sea in vicinity and poss off Peru and Chile.
F: Dozen near Rabida, Galapagos Is, Jun (Ottesen); 241 at sea Jun-Jul (Chartier).
O. g. gracilis At sea off Ecuador, Peru, Chile between 3-31S and within 475 km of mainland (Spear and Ainley 2007).
Garrodia nereis Grey-backed Storm-Petrel
Breeds (total 10,000-50,000 prs) Macquarie I 5 prs (Tas WS), Auckland Is, Antipodes Is "tens of thousands nesting prs" (Tennyson et al 2002), Chatham Is 10,000-12,000 prs (Aikman and Miskelly 2004). Eggs Sep- Dec. At sea in vicinity, cas n to 35S NZ (SI, NI), Tasman Sea.
Pelagodroma marina White-faced Storm-Petrel
P. m. dulciae At sea Apr-Sep sw Pacific, poss between Fiji and Kermadec Is (Imber 1984); recent banding recoveries suggest however that most occur in Indian Ocean (see Spear and Ainley 2007). Acc NZ (May NI), Sep (this subsp?) Samoa (Tutuila).
P. m. maoriana Breeds 2-4 million prs NZ (islands off NI, SI, Stewart I), Auckland Is, Chatham Is 1,000,000 prs, incl 840,000 Rangatira (Aikman and Miskelly 2004). Eggs Oct-Dec. At sea Apr-Sep n to Equator incl Tasman Sea and e to Galapagos Is and to 5N in e Pacific (Imber 1984; Shirihai 2002; 1 banded Chatham Is recovered Humboldt Current 10S), incl Cocos I (Montoya 2003). Thought to migrate to Humboldt Current, following it north to area of Galapagos Is and then directly back to NZ (King 1974, Imber 1984). Large numbers present west of Galapagos Is in area 8S-5N and 100-112W in Aug-Sep (King 1974). One near Austral Is 25-26S Sep (Gaskin and Wood).
P. m. albiclunis Breeding of P. marina had never been proved on the Kermadec Is when Imber (1984) made a case that white-rumped birds (generally referred to as albiclunis) may in fact be immatures of dulciae. However Imber and Baird found adults in burrrows on Haszard I Aug 2006 and estimated 100-300 pairs there; adults had very pale but not white rumps (Imber, post to BIRDING-NZ Sep 2006).
?Breeds Kermadec Is (Haszard I; Macauley I? Meyer I? Veitch et al 2004). Extirp? Lord Howe I (McAllan et al 2004). Eggs Dec? (Veitch et al 2004). At sea in vicinity, incl 2 recs Jan and Mar Lord Howe I (one with white rump as in albiclunis, McAllan et al 2004).
Fregetta tropica Black-bellied Storm-Petrel
F. t. tropica Breeds Auckland Is 50,000-100,000 prs, Antipodes Is "tens of thousands of prs" (Tennyson et al 2002), ?Bounty Is (Shirihai 2002). Eggs Jan. At sea Nov-Apr near breeding sites, cas n to NZ; May-Oct n to 15S, incl Solomon Is (11 in Solomon Sea Aug, M. Carter), Vanuatu, New Caledonia (Penhallurick 2003; this sp or grallaria Feb, Apr, Jun, Oct, Barre and Dutson 2000), and s Polynesia. Cas (this sp?) Samoa (Upolu; listed as Fregetta lineata Peale's Storm-Petrel, Armstrong 1932; synonymized with F. tropica by Murphy 1952 and OSNZ 1990), Marquesas Is (Penhallurick 2003).
F: 50-100+/day Apr betw Bks Pen and Antipodes I (Imber et al 2005).
F. grallaria White-bellied Storm-Petrel
Lord Howe breeders include melanistic individuals, light and intermediate birds occur at the Kermadecs, and Juan Fernandez birds are light morphs (Spear and Ainley 2007).
F. g. grallaria Breeds Lord Howe I 1000 prs, Kermadec Is (<500 prs Curtis, <200 prs Macauley, Veitch et al 2004). Eggs Jan-Mar. At sea in vicinity Sep-May, n to Coral Sea, c Pacific (Hutton 1991), Samoa (Upolu), Marquesas Is (Ua Pou, Murphy 1952, DuPont 1976), 15 collected Oct-Nov 120W-150W believed this taxon based on size, molt, and distance of >3500 km to nearest segethi (Spear and Ainley 2007); prob this sp n to Solomon Is, New Caledonia (see tropica), Vanuatu, Fiji, Cook Is (Aug, Holyoak 1980). Cas NZ (8 records Apr-Jul, Nov-Dec). Acc Norfolk I May 2001 (at sea, 1st live rec? Clarke).
F: Lord Howe I (several near Ball's Pyramid Jan, Shimba; 10-12 on trip to Ball's Pyramid Apr, Walker; 8 close to Ball's Pyramid Mar, Gregory).
F. g. titan Breeds Tubuai Is (Rapa 500 prs, Penhallurick 2003). Eggs? At sea in vicinity, incl Marquesas Is, Society Is; one collected Nov at 5N 140W (Spear and Ainley 2007) and another 450 km south of Galapagos Is believed to be this taxon (Murphy 1936).
F. g. segethi Breeds Juan Fernandez Is, Desadventuradas Is, est 114,600 in austral spring and 442,500 in austral fall (Spear and Ainley 2007). Eggs Dec-Jan. At sea in vicinity, mostly in Humboldt Current between Equator and 36S and within 1700 km of mainland South America ie west to about 100W (Spear and Ainley 2007). Cas n to Galapagos Is May- Aug.
Nesofregetta fuliginosa Polynesian (White-throated) Storm-Petrel
Single specimen "Samoan Storm Petrel" ("Fregetta moestissima") a large dark form, may be distinct population (King 1974).
Breeds New Caledonia (recently confirmed 3 colonies Southern Lagoon, Barre and Dutson 2000), Kiribati (?Gilbert Is: Tabiteuea, Amerson 1969; Phoenix Is: Phoenix/Rawaki, McKean, King 1974; Line Is: Kiritimati, King 1974; breeding pop Phoenix, Line and Gambier Is est 4-40,000, but world pop prob about 10,000, see Spear and Ainley 2007), Tubuai Is (Rapa), Gambier Is 200-500 prs, ?Marquesas Is (5 collected in breeding condition within 875 km Oct and Apr-May indicative of breeding at this location, Spear and Ainley 2007), Desadventuras Is (Sala-y-Gomez I). Breeding unconfirmed Vanuatu (extirp? Watling 2001), Fiji (duPont 1976; extirp? Watling 2001; only one sighting last 30 yrs, Masibalavu and Dutson 2006), Samoa (extirp? Watling 2001). Eggs year round, but peaks Kiribati (Kiritimati Sep-Nov; Line Is Jan), Marquesas Is Jul-Dec (Chester et al 1998). At sea c and e Pacific between 25N and 30S, esp 10N and 20S and 90W - 150W (King 1974, Spear and Ainley 2007), incl Cook Is (Aug, Holyoak 1980) and concentrations 10N-10S/100-120W (King 1974). Cas ?Marshall Is (Spennemann and Benjamin 2004), Hawaiian Is (one in Oct Johnston Atoll area, Force and Webb), Solomon Is (Penhallurick 2003; one in Solomon Sea Aug, M. Carter).
F: Can be found Oct-Nov between New Caledonia and Loyalty Is (Lifou, T. Clarke, G. Allport, Barre and Dutson 2000; between Hunter and Matthew Jun, Barre and Dutson 2000); poss sightings off Mana I, Fiji (Allport).
Pealeornis maoriana New Zealand Storm-Petrel
Oliver (1930) followed Murphy (1924) in placing this species with Fregetta, although he later (1955), following Murphy (1952), reluctantly placed it in Oceanites. More recently, Bourne and Jouanin (2004), in discussing the origin of 3 specimens collected in NZ (Oliver 1955, Medway 2004a), referred to this taxon as Pealeornis maoriana Mathews 1932. Oliver (1930) included specimens taken at Samoa (Upolu) and in the Marquesas Is (Ua Pu) in this taxon, but more recent authors have attributed these specimens to F. grallaria and F. tropica (see those taxa; Murphy 1952). While it has been stated that the 3 NZ specimens cited by Oliver (1955) "probably show a rare form of individual variation" (see HANZAB; Murphy 1952), O. oceanicus exhibits little such variation elsewhere, as pointed out by Oliver (1955). Holdaway et al (2001) attributed skeletal items from three SI sources previously attributed to other species to this form. An exciting recent development was the sighting of a bird off NZ Jan 2003 (NI: Whitianga) which may be of this species (Saville et al 2003; http://www.wrybill-tours.com/idproblems/stormpet.htm). Subsequently, photos were taken by Flood and Thomas of several birds apparently also of this species near Little Barrier Island Nov 2003 and numerous sightings have been made since in the outer Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand through Apr 2005 (Gaskin and Baird 2005; http://www.kiwi-wildlife.co.nz).
Breeds ?NZ (?NI: Mokohinau Is?, Gaskin and Baird 2005). In April 2008 one was photographed within 15 miles of New Caledonia, the first sighting so far away from NZ waters (Brodie-Good); it has been suggested that it may disperse northward to area of North Cape during non-breeding season (Gaskin and Baird 2005).

DIOMEDEIDAE (16 species)

In the Northern Hemisphere there are 3 species, with vagrants from the Southern Hemisphere recorded. In the Southern Hemisphere, 11 species (including D. irrorata Waved Albatross) in 4 genera are generally recognized, although there are recent suggestions for further splits resulting in species status for each of the 24 known taxa (Robertson and Gales 1998). It should be noted here that calculations of distance matrices using cytochrome b sequence data indicate that many of the proposed splits are unsupported (Penhallurick and Wink 2004). Herein, traditional D. melanophris Black-browed Albatross , D. bulleri Buller's Albatross, and D. cauta Shy Albatross, have been split, each into two species, based mainly on biological considerations, with some support from genetic studies, and amsterdamensis has been reduced to subspecific status; thus, 16 species are recognized. The only species (of the traditional 14) not recorded with certainty in the Pacific Region is the newly-described D. amsterdamensis Amsterdam Albatross. This taxon was reported as longliner bycatch south of Tasmania in 1992 (Robertson and Gales 1998), but it now appears that the capture was in the Indian Ocean outside Australian territorial waters (Gales, in Christidis and Boles 1994). Birds recently (1999) photographed and measured off se Australia (Palliser: Aust Seabird Grp Newsl. 35:17) may be this species or juvenile D. c. antipodensis. It appears that immatures of the two taxa cannot be differentiated in the hand, and they may be more closely related than previously believed (SOSSA Newsl #24, 2000); Penhallurick and Wink (2004) show that amsterdamensis is "clearly" a subspecies of chionoptera (=exulans). Penhallurick (2003) suggests without citation that amsterdamensis may breed on Antipodes Is; if so, then either the two taxa are indeed specifically distinct or the same subspecies. The subspecies dabbenena has been recorded off se Australia, and thus probably occurs occasionally in the Tasman Sea.
Generally, breeding adults feeding chicks forage in favored areas of ocean, often some distance from the nest site, with rapid outward and return trips to feed chicks. After young are fledged, adults migrate rapidly to preferred foraging areas, returning prior to the next breeding cycle. Juveniles after fledging move to areas favored by adults and remain there for several years prior to returning to the natal site to begin mate selection, which may take a few years prior to start of successful breeding.

Diomedea chionoptera Wandering Albatross
The somewhat confused taxonomy of this species stems from disagreement over the provenance of the specimen described by Linnaeus 1758 as exulans. Medway (1993) concluded that the somewhat equivocal measurements cited by Edwards (referred to by Linnaeus) suggested a high latitude provenance, whereas others using the same Edwards data (Chris Robertson- see Penhallurick, BIRDING-AUS 30 Jun 2000) maintain that Gough I was the source of the specimen. Olmos (SEABIRD Oct 2000) pointed out that Dabbene (1926) added or corrected the origin of the specimen cited by Linnaeus to South Georgia; if this is substantiated, then indeed exulans applies to high latitude populations. It seems advisable based on these uncertainties to consider exulans indeterminate. In this case, chionoptera Salvin 1896 applies to high latitude populations, and becomes the specific epithet for the species, and dabbenena Mathews 1929 (spadicea is a nomen oblitum for the Gough I population) to Gough and Tristan populations. The remaining low latitude populations are amsterdamensis of the Indian Ocean (usually accorded specific status), and antipodensis and gibsoni on New Zealand subantarctic islands. These 5 taxa are herein considered subspecies within D. chionoptera. This taxonomy is supported by Penhallurick and Wink (2004), except that these authors retain the epithet exulans in preference to chionoptera for high-latitude breeding birds. Double (2006) and Burg and Croxall (2004) considered antipodensis and gibsoni a subspecies pair of D. antipodensis, and Burg and Croxall (2004) made a case for separate specific status for high-latitude populations (as exulans).
D. c. antipodensis Breeds Antipodes Is 8600 prs, with 5180 prs yearly 1994-97 (Walker and Elliott 2005), Campbell I 5-10 prs, Chatham Is (Chatham 1 pr failed attempts 2003, 2004, and 2005 (Miskelly et al. 2006); Pitt 1 pr successful 2004 and another nesting 2006, Aikman and Miskelly 2004, Miskelly et al 2006). At sea sw Pacific n to 25S, occasionally to Fiji and e (male non-breeders mostly Feb-Jul) to Humboldt Current (Walker and Elliott 2006). One near Austral Is Sep (Gaskin and Wood). Eggs mid-Jan to mid-Feb (Walker and Elliott 2005).
D. c. gibsoni Breeds Auckland Is 8000 prs, with 5831 prs breeding each year (Walker and Elliott 1999). At sea mostly in Tasman Sea between 30-55S, but many, mostly males, eastern NZ continental shelf and Chatham Rise (Walker and Elliott 2006). About 85% of the Diomedea that occur off the New South Wales coast are Gibson's Albatross (Milburn-post to Birding-Aus 2002). Eggs Jan.
D. c. chionoptera Breeds Macquarie I 12 prs (Baker et al 2002; Alderman et al 2005). At sea n to 20S, incl specimen of this subsp New Caledonia (Barre and Dutson 2000). Breeders from South Georgia reach e as far as NZ (Tickell 2000; one banded Bird I, South Georgia, observed Stewart I Nov 1999; Seddon: Southern Bird #3, 2000), while s Indian Ocean breeders occur entire s Pacific n to about 20S (Tickell 2000), poss 10S off S. America.
D. c. subsp? Max abundance e Tasman Sea May-Jun, NZ coastal waters Jun-Jul; "regularly seen at sea Kermadec Is" (Veitch et al 2004), in Humboldt Current n to 33S, occ to 10S. Cas Lord Howe I (5 recs May and (4) Sep-Oct, McAllan et al 2004), Norfolk I, New Caledonia (Jul, Sep, Barre and Dutson 2000), May-Oct Fiji, Jul-Nov Tonga. Acc Tuamotu Is, Marquesas Is (DuPont 1976), Jul California, Japan.
chionoptera/epomophora? Acc Galapagos Is. epomophora may be more common off S. America (Harrison 1983).
D. epomophora Royal Albatross
It has been proposed (Robertson and Nunn in Robertson and Gales 1998) that the 2 subspecies be accorded specific status, although mixed pairs occur SI and Auckland Is (see below; Robertson and Gales 1998), and cytochrome b studies show very little distance between the taxa (Penhallurick and Wink 2004). Although plumage sequences differ significantly, the taxa are retained as subspecies herein, as suggested by Penhallurick and Wink (2004).
Both subspecies feed over shelf break and inner slope seas, either to the southeast of NZ or off southeast S. America, with rapid transit between the two areas (Imber 1999).
D. e. epomophora Breeds Auckland Is 100 prs including 2 mixed pairs with sanfordi in recently re-established population on Enderby I (Robertson and Gales 1998), Campbell I 13,000 prs (Imber 1999). At sea Jun-Aug n to 20S, mostly west Dec-Feb (juveniles) and east Jul-Sep (older age groups) coasts of S. America (Moore and Bettany 2005), but 10S off western S. America. One banded NZ beach-wrecked New Caledonia Oct (Barre and Dutson 2000). Eggs Nov-Dec.
D. e. sanfordi Breeds Chatham Is: Sisters 2500 prs, Forty-Fours 4000 prs, NZ (SI: Taiaroa Head 15-30 prs including 5 known hybrids with epomophora; Robertson and Gales 1998). At sea Jun-Aug n to 20S, 10S off S. America; return circumpolar, with rapid migration NZ to S. America for non-breeding season then rapid return eastward (satellite tracking- Robertson and Nicholls 2000). Juv Oct ca 32-33S/165W (Gaskin and Wood). Eggs Nov-Dec.
F: Taiaroa Head, Otago Peninsula.
D. e. subsp? Acc May s Tonga, Cook Is (imm Rarotonga Sep), Tuamotu Is (band recovered). Fiji rec considered incorrect (Watling 2001).
Phoebastria irrorata Waved Albatross
Breeds Galapagos Is (Espanola) 12,000 prs. At sea south and east to coast of S. America 4N-16S (Tickell 2000). Cas Cocos I (Montoya 2003). Eggs Apr-Jul.
F: Hundreds nesting Punta Suarez, Espanola Jun (Ottesen).
P. albatrus Short-tailed (Steller's) Albatross
Breeds s Izu Is (Torishima) ca 1500 inds in 2001, up from only 10 in 1950 (Hasegawa); Ogasawara Is (Yomejima I, 1 pair Dec 2000 (SEABIRD); Mukojima I, 10 chicks translocated 2008); Hawaiian Is (Midway I) 1-2 birds, bred unsuccessfully 1993 (Robertson and Gales 1998), incl yellow-banded female pres and laying eggs every 2 yrs since 1993 but never mated (N Am Birds 56:120). At sea s to 20N, cas Hawaiian Is, ne Pacific mostly Jun-Nov, Aug-Jan further se. Cas Hawaiian Is (French Frigate Shoals, Laysan I). Acc Guadalupe I, Revillagigedo Is (San Benedicto). Hypo Mariana Is (Baker 1951). Eggs Oct-Nov.
F: One subad Midway (Sand I) several months prior to Apr 1995 (Vendenberg). Subad (same bird?) present mid-Nov to mid-Jan 1997-98 (Saldino).
P. nigripes Black-footed Albatross
Breeds nw Hawaiian Is (Kure and Midway e to Nihoa and Kaula, 50,000 prs); s Izu Is (Torishima) 1300 prs; Ogasawara Is (Mukojima) 1000 prs; ?Johnston I, Revillagigedo Is (San Benedicto 1 pr, Pitman and Ballance 2002). Extirp as breeder Mariana Is, Wake (Pyle and Engbring 1985). At sea 18N-45N, incl n Mariana Is, cas n to 55N and s to 0. Old reports of breeding on Marshall Is have been discounted (Amerson 1969; Tickell 2000). Birds from Midway I spend non-breeding season off Hokkaido (Brazil 1991). Acc NZ (Jul SI), Guadalupe I, e of Galapagos Is. Eggs Nov-Dec.
P. immutabilis Laysan Albatross
Breeds total 1,300,000-2,100,000 inds or 558,000 prs nw Hawaiian Is (Kure e to Kauai, Niihau, Nihoa, Moko Manu), s Izu Is (Torishima 1000 prs, Tickell 2000), Ogasawara Is (Mukojima 20 prs, Robertson and Gales 1998), Guadalupe I 50 prs, Revillagigedo Is 10-20 prs (Clarion, San Benedicto 12 prs, Pitman and Ballance 2002). Hypo breeder Wake I (Rice and Kenyon 1962). At sea 15N-55N, incl Mariana Is (Reichel and Glass 1991), Caroline Is (Pohnpei, Penhallurick 2003). Marked northward shift non-breeding season (King 1974). Cas s to 8N, incl n. Marshall Is (Amerson 1969). Acc Solomon Is (Makira) Sep 1965 (banded at Midway I as juv Mar 1965, Robbins and Rice in Tickell 2000); Norfolk I Oct 1985 and Aug 1986 (Tickell 2000, Moore 1999; a previous record not accepted by RAOU, Christidis and Boles 1994), NZ (Dec NI, Medway 2000). Eggs Nov-Dec.
F: Breeding Kilauea Pt, Kauai (Pratt 1993).
Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross
This taxon and T. impavida have recently been considered separate species. Although Penhallurick and Wink (2004) retain these as a subspecies pair based on their relatively close genetic distance, there is biological evidence for species status. Mixed pairs occur along with pure pairs on Campbell I, but this may be a result of the low numbers of this taxon relative to the large numbers of impavida present and the finding that most dark-eyed birds present are males; the presence of pure pairs of melanophris amongst large numbers of impavida suggests assortative mating (Moore et al 1997, 2001). Fledging success of mixed pairs is lower than that of pairs of impavida (Moore et al 1997).
Moore et al (2001) found two genetically distinct groups within melanophris on Campbell I; "typical" birds, and Falkland Is birds; status of these taxa is unresolved, although Burg and Croxall (2001) showed that Falklands birds differ genetically from all other populations of the species. Further, Alderman et al (2005) confirmed this finding, and concluded that range expansion of Falklands haplotypes into the Pacific has occurred, with secondary contact between these haplotypes and those of impavida on Campbell I and Macquarie I.
Waugh et al (2000) showed that foraging strategy differs between impavida at Campbell Island and nominate birds at South Georgia and Kergulen, the former including oceanic forays up to 2000 km, the latter strictly neritic.
Breeds Macquarie I 46 prs (Baker et al 2002), Antipodes Is (Bollons I) 120 prs, Snares Is (first recorded 1984) 1 pr, Campbell I (first recorded 1975) 30 prs. At sea n to 10S off S. America probably all from S. American breeding islands; also n and e to Tasman Sea, where cas Norfolk I, Lord Howe I (3 recs: May, Sep, Oct, McAllan et al 2004), esp juvs Nov-Jan, probably birds from Macquarie I and breeding islands west to S. Georgia (Tickell 2000). One Oct ca. 31-32S/160W (Gaskin and Wood). Acc Galapagos Is. Eggs Sep-Oct. Breeds annually.
T. impavida Campbell Albatross
Breeds Campbell I 26,000 prs. At sea n in sw Pacific rarely to 20S incl New Caledonia (this subsp? Barre and Dutson 2000), Aug Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Cook Is, ca 32-33S/165W Oct (Gaskin and Wood), Marquesas Is and e to 140W (Tickell 2000). Peak NZ (Cook Strait) Jul-Aug. Eggs Sep-Oct. Breeds annually.
Thalassarche sp. Occurs n to between Hawaiian Is and Line Is (listed as melanophris by Penhallurick 2003), Tuamotu Is, Pitcairn Is.
T. cauta Shy Albatross
Some authors consider all 4 taxa separate species: White-capped (Auckland Shy; steadi), (Tasmanian) Shy (cauta), Salvin's (salvini), and Chatham (eremita). Genetic studies by Abbott and Double (2003) and Penhallurick and Wink (2004) indicate that the taxa could be allocated to at least 2 species, one including cauta and steadi, and the other including eremita and salvini, the position taken herein. Data in Abbott and Double (2003) show sufficient divergence between salvini and eremita to warrant specific status, although Miskelly et al (2000) discuss the presence of incubating eremita and apparent hybrids between eremita and salvini at the Snares Is. Abbott and Double (2003) considered cauta and steadi to be insufficiently divergent to warrant specific status, although treatment as separate species based on bill coloration and clear mensural differences is suggestive; there is no detectable gene flow between the taxa (Double et al 2003; Double 2006).
T. c. steadi Breeds Auckland Is 70,000-83,100 prs (Taylor 2000), Antipodes Is 20-50 prs, Chatham Is (Forty-fours 1 pr since 1991, Aikman and Miskelly 2004; Miskelly et al 2006). At sea n to 20S, apparently e to S. America and northward on occasion across equator (1 rec N. America Sep 1951 off Washington, Cole 2000, but see Slipp 1952; photo of Peru at http://www.birding-peru.com/upload/reports/White-capped-Albatros1.jpg). Ad (cauta/ steadi) at Macquarie I Oct 2002 (R. Clarke) and Nov 2006 (Hobcroft). Eggs Sep-Oct.
T. c. cauta At sea sw Pacific, e to NZ. Occurs off e S. America, probably arriving there westward via S. Atlantic; no evidence for eastward movement to S. America. Brothers et al (1997) showed subadults move westward as far as South Africa and adults remain in Australian waters. 2 recs N. America: Aug 1999 off California, Jan 2000 off Washington (possibly same bird); also poss same bird an imm Oct 1996 off Oregon (Cole 2000). Eggs Nov-Dec.
T. salvini Salvin's Albatross
T. c. salvini Breeds Snares Is 650 prs (Miskelly et al 2000), Bounty Is 30,750 prs (Taylor 2000), Chatham Is (Pyramid 2 prs? Aikman and Miskelly 2004; Miskelly et al 2006). Attempted breeding with eremita at Snares Is and Chatham Is (see eremita, below). At sea (mostly juvs-Harrison 1983) n to 20S, 6S off S. America. Acc (this subsp. or poss eremita) off N. America Jul 2000; a subadult was on Midway Atoll 8 Apr 2003 (Robertson et al 2005); one at Diego Ramirez 56S (Arata 2003). Eggs Sep-Oct.
T. c. eremita Breeds Chatham Is (Pyramid Rock) 4000 prs; attempted breeding with salvini on Western Chain, Snares Is (Miskelly et al 2000) and also at Pyramid, Chatham Is, 2003 (Miskelly et al 2006). At sea eastward to Humboldt Current Apr-Aug, return more northerly (satellite tracking- Robertson et al 2000; Tickell 2000; Spear et al 2003; Latham et al 2004); Oct ca 37S/178E ne of NZ (Gaskin and Wood). Also occasionally in Tasman Sea. Eggs Aug-Oct.
T. chrysostoma Grey-headed Albatross
Breeds Macquarie I 78 prs (Baker et al 2002), Campbell I 6000 prs (Waugh et al 2000). Seen ashore Antipodes Is 1950 (Tennyson et al 2002). At sea Jun-Nov n to 35S, possibly 15S off S. America (an adult from South Georgia to Drake Passage and north off Chile; South Georgia juvs eastward to NZ, Tickell 2000; S. Georgia birds circumvent Southern Ocean, esp males, one male 22,000 km in 46 days, 3 birds circumnavigated twice in 18 months, Coxall). Campbell I breeders forage Tasman Sea (Tickell 2000). Acc Society Is (Tahiti, Enticott and Tipling 1997). Eggs Oct. Breeds biennually if successful; if not, returns following year.
T. chlororhynchos Yellow-nosed Albatross
T. c. carteri (bassi of some authors, but see OSNZ 1990, Robertson 2002). At sea Apr-Oct (juvs peak Sep-Oct) ne to n NZ (NI) and 26S, unrecorded e of Chatham Is. Acc Jan Snares Is (Miskelly et al 2001). One pair nesting at Chatham Is (Pyramid) since Nov 1998 (Aikman and Miskelly 2004; Miskelly et al 2006).
T. c. chlororhynchos Cas ne to n NZ: 3 recs, incl single birds at Chatham Is (Sisters Is) Jan 1975 (Robertson 1975), Sep 1976 (Miskelly et al 2006), and Jan 1996 (Miskelly et al 2006).
T. bulleri (Southern) Buller's Albatross
This taxon and the northern form, often (incorrectly) referred to as platei (see below) are considered conspecific by some authors, but the 3-month differential in laying dates between the two taxa suggests specific status. The two taxa were retained as subspecies by Double (2006) due to the paucity of data that would allow elevation to specific status. The epithet platei was first applied to an immature bulleri and the two are thus synonymous, platei junior, leaving the northern taxon currently un-named.
Breeds Solander Is 4912 prs (Sagar and Stahl 2005), Snares Is 8713 prs (Sagar and Stahl 2005). At sea breeding season n to 41S around NZ (SI, Stahl and Sagar 2000a, 2000b); Jun-Aug n to 12S, apparently migrating to/from the Humboldt Current (one 7-8 years old not yet breeding banded as chick at Snares Is recovered Oct at 12S 105W, Warham 1982, Tickell 2000; one ca. 31-32S/160W Oct (Gaskin and Wood); one rec Kermadec Is (this form? Jul Raoul, Reed 1973)) and one for Chatham Is Jan 1996 (Miskelly et al 2006); suggested (Harrison 1983, Enticott and Tipling 1997) that most sedentary, but this taxon absent between breeding seasons from Snares Is, returning around Dec 1 (Miskelly et al 2001) and Solander I (Stahl and Sagar 2000b), and most disperse outside Australasian seas between breeding seasons (Stahl et al 1998). Eggs Jan-Feb. Breeds annually.
T. nov. sp Pacific (Northern Buller's) Albatross
As yet this taxon is un-named; see bulleri, above.
Breeds Chatham Is (Forty Fours 16,000 prs, Sisters 2000 prs); NZ (Three Kings Is: Rosemary Rock 15 prs). At sea breeding season in vicinity (Stahl et al 1998); Jun-Sep n to 20S, to 12S off Peru (whether Humboldt Current birds are indeed this taxon questioned by Jaramillo 2003). Eggs Oct-Nov. Breeds annually.
Phoebetria fusca (Dark-mantled) Sooty Albatross
At sea Feb-Nov northeastward to w Tasman Sea (recs s of Australia), Macquarie I, Feb Auckland Is, Nov Antipodes Is, Nov NZ (SI), once extreme se Pacific (Enticott and Tipling 1997; Tickell 2000). Breeds biennually if successful; if not, returns following year.
P. palpebrata Light-mantled Sooty Albatross
Breeds Auckland Is 5000 prs, Campbell I 1600 prs, Antipodes Is 200-300 prs (Taylor 2000), Macquarie I 5000 prs. At sea Jun-Aug n to 35S, 20S off S. America. Cas Kermadec Is. Acc Marquesas Is, Jul 1994 California.